Even before the US formally entered World War II, there was a demand for materials to supply the Allies. But there was greater demand on the part of American manufacturers to supply products for civilians. A report examining American preparation for war noted that, in 1941, US factories made more articles for civilian use than ever before. In response, the US government ordered production cuts to strip off some of this “fat." They targeted items like cars, lawn mowers, juke boxes, “fancy galoshes," and other items. With these limits imposed, the government estimated that $20 billion in capacity could be used for military production.[1]
After Pearl Harbor and the other home front attacks of December 1941, the US officially joined World War II. Through patriotism and government mandates, war production boomed across the country. With the boom came an enormous demand for raw materials including things like steel, leather, fabrics, wood, aluminum, and rubber. Many items made from these materials -- including metal toys, cutlery, radios, refrigerators, and washing machines - disappeared from the marketplace. Their materials and manufacturing capacity instead went to the war production.[2] March 31, 1942 was the last day that manufacturers could use tin, steel, copper, aluminum, nickel, chrome, or various other materials for non-military goods.[3]
Some items, like coffee, sugar, rubber, and tin were in short supply because of the war itself. Shipments of coffee from Central and South America were cut off, both by enemy submarine attacks and the need for cargo vessels to carry military instead of civilian goods. [4] These factors also affected the availability of sugar, but even more so was the loss of access to the Philippine sugar industry when Japan captured the islands. [5] At about the same time, Japan attacked and occupied several territories in Southeast Asia. This put them (by design) in control of about 70% of the world’s tin supply and 90% of the world’s supply of rubber just as the US entered World War II. [6] While some rubber was available from South America, ships were unavailable to transport it. [7]
Some businesses were able to adapt to these restrictions. For example, canned dog food was not seen as a good use of tin. Without access to cans, several companies switched to dehydrated dog food. It came in a box or cardboard “can," and was rehydrated with water or milk before serving.[8]
Companies shifted their packaging to jars and boxes; aluminum pots and pans were replaced by enamelware; and toys were made from wood and cardboard by factories and by families at home; and the Girl Scouts sold calendars instead of cookies.[9] Government limits on the use of fabrics for civilians also changed how people dressed. Gone were double-breasted suits, vests, cuffs on pants, patch pockets, pleated skirts, long hemlines, and one-piece bathing suits. [10] Faced with a fabric shortage, people mended their clothing, sewed their own using feed sacks, and knitted. When nylon and silk vanished from the market, women adapted by drawing stocking seams on their legs. These were known as “bottled stockings." [11]
Even in wartime, however, businesses and civilians still needed access to products like shoes, foods, gasoline, and heating fuel. The ration system helped manage this problem.
Rationing
In World War I and before the US entered World War II, the government asked people to ration voluntarily.[12] This approach was unsuccessful. Instead, people hoarded products and costs rose, and those without money simply went without needed goods.
In January 1942, just a few weeks after the Japanese attacks in the Pacific, the federal government mandated rationing. This limited the availability of certain goods and materials and ensured fair distribution, given the needs of the war. Establishing maximum or ceiling prices for rationed goods also helped to keep inflation in check. Using their nation-wide overview of supply, demand, and the economy, the federal government dictated which items to ration, set ceiling prices, and allocated available supply. Rationing was overseen by the federal Office of Price Administration (OPA) in conjunction with other war offices, including the Wartime Production Board (WPB). It was managed at the local level by volunteer rationing boards. At their local rationing offices, people registered for and received their ration books, and could apply for ration certificates or additional coupons. When the war ended, over 100,000 citizen volunteers were managing the program organized into about 5,600 local boards.[13]
The ration program had four systems:
1. certificate rationing (for items like tires, cars, and stoves that required applying for a certificate to buy);
2. differential coupon rationing (for things like gasoline and heating oil that some people needed more than others);
3. uniform coupon rationing (for things like shoes, sugar, and coffee rationed at fairly stable amounts per person); and
4. point rationing (for items like meats and canned goods where supply and demand varied greatly).[14]
In each of these four systems, to buy something, shoppers had to produce the right ration coupons, stamps, certificates, or points plus the cost of the item. To control the rate of spending and discourage hoarding, coupons and stamps expired at set times. [15] The OPA added and removed items from the ration list throughout the war. Rationing ended as goods became available. By the end of 1945, the only thing still rationed was sugar. It remained under ration until June 1947. [16]
Despite the best efforts of the government, the volunteer rationing boards, the police, and civilian defense workers, there were many people who found ways to work around the ration system. These included theft, counterfeiting, hoarding, fraud, and organized crime in illicit trade, also called the black market.
Read more about food rationing and rationing of non-food items.
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This article was written by Megan E. Springate, Postdoctoral Associate, Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland. It was funded by the National Council on Public History’s cooperative agreement with the National Park Service.
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Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service